Structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells; Membrane structure and function;

• Organelles and the internal organization of the eukaryotic cell Protein trafficking in a eukaryotic cell.
• Cell communication – signaling pathways: endocrine and paracrine signaling.
• Extracellular matrix and apoptosis.
• Cell cycle – stages of mitosis and meiosis, and control of cell division cycle.

• Structure and function of biological macromolecules, allostery.
• Enzymes – basic mechanisms of enzyme catalysis, Michaelis-Menten kinetics, enzyme inhibition, vitamins as coenzymes, and regulation.
• Bioenergetics – free-energy change, high-energy compounds, biological oxidation-reduction reactions, and reduction potential.
• Metabolism – glycolysis, TCA cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation, urea cycle, and regulation of glycolysis and TCA cycle.

• Mendel’s laws, Inheritance patterns of polygenic traits, Mendelian inheritance patterns of human disorders, Pedigree analysis, Chromosomal basis of inheritance, Genetic recombination, Mapping genes on chromosomes based on linkage analysis, Plant breeding.

• Landmark experiments that established DNA are the genetic material, DNA replication, Proofreading and repair of DNA, DNA recombination, Transcription, RNA processing, Translation, Regulation of gene expression including operons bacteria, and differential gene expression in multicellular eukaryotes.

• Darwinian view – natural selection, fossil record and descent with modification, Population genetics – sources of genetic variation, gene pools and allele frequencies, Hardy-Weinberg equation, genetic drift, gene flow, and adaptive evolution;
• Different types of speciation, Phylogenetic Classification, Origin of life – abiotic synthesis of biological macromolecules, protocell, dating fossils, and origin of multicellularity.

• Isolation, Cultivation, Structural features of viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa, Pathogenic microorganisms, Nutrition-based classification of microbes, Microbial metabolism, Growth kinetics, Submerged fermentation techniques, Microbial genetics.

• Types of tissues and organs, Primary and secondary growth, Morphogenesis, Transport in vascular plants.
• Plant nutrition; Development of flowering plants – gametophytic and sporophytic generations, different developmental phases, genetic control of flowering, gametogenesis, incompatibility, embryogenesis, dormancy, germination, and environmental influence.
• Plant hormones, Photobiology, Plant response to biotic and abiotic stresses.

• Digestive, circulatory, respiratory, excretory, nervous, reproductive, and endocrine systems, Basics of immunology – Innate and adaptive immunity, Immune cells and Immunoglobulins.
• Animal development – Fertilization, embryonic pattern formation, cleavage, gastrulation, cellular differentiation, and morphogenesis.

• Climate patterns; Terrestrial and aquatic biomes; Environmental constraints on species distribution; Factors affecting population density; Interactions among communities; Ecosystems; Ecological remediation.

• Plant tissue culture, Cloning of animals through somatic cell nuclear transfer, Applications of recombinant DNA technology in medicine, agriculture, and forensic science.

• Cell Biology: Microscopy (light microscopy and electron microscopy), Staining proteins with antibodies, Visualizations using the GFP reporter.
• Biochemical techniques: UV spectrophotometry, Biomolecular chromatography, cell fractionation by centrifugation, Electrophoresis, and Western blotting.
• Molecular biology techniques: DNA cloning – plasmid vectors, and restriction enzymes, Polymerase Chain Reaction, Expression of cloned eukaryotic genes in bacteria, Hybridization techniques, DNA sequencing.